Delving into the fascinating world of tinctures, this complete information, ‘Record of Tinctures and Makes use of PDF,’ gives an in depth overview of those potent plant extracts. From their historic roots to fashionable purposes, this useful resource unravels the mysteries surrounding tinctures, exploring every little thing from preparation strategies to potential interactions and security concerns.
This in-depth have a look at tinctures might be invaluable to herbalists, practitioners, and anybody excited about studying extra about their use. The information delves into numerous tincture varieties, their components, and particular makes use of, backed by a wealth of knowledge on preparation, security, and potential interactions. Detailed tables and lists present clear, concise summaries of the data, making it simple to know the important thing factors.
Introduction to Tinctures
Tinctures are liquid extracts, usually utilized in natural drugs and different pure treatments. They are a concentrated type of plant materials, preserving the useful compounds and making them simpler to eat and take up. Think about a potent potion, bottled and prepared for use. Their historical past spans centuries, with roots in historical traditions, and as we speak they proceed to discover a place in holistic well being practices.These concentrated plant extracts are created by way of a strategy of soaking plant materials in a solvent, sometimes alcohol.
This course of extracts the useful compounds, making a potent and readily absorbed type of the plant’s medicinal properties. It is like unlocking the secrets and techniques inside a plant and making them obtainable to your physique.
Historic Context of Tinctures
The usage of tinctures dates again to historical civilizations, with proof of their use in conventional drugs programs like Ayurveda and Conventional Chinese language Medication. These practices acknowledged the facility of vegetation and developed strategies for extracting and preserving their therapeutic properties. For hundreds of years, tinctures had been an important a part of medical therapies and a cornerstone of pure therapeutic.
Widespread Components Utilized in Tinctures
All kinds of plant elements can be utilized to make tinctures, together with roots, leaves, flowers, bark, and berries. The particular alternative of ingredient is determined by the meant use and the specified results. Many widespread herbs, like chamomile, ginger, and turmeric, are common decisions, however numerous others maintain their very own distinctive properties.
Totally different Forms of Tinctures
Numerous tinctures can be found, every designed for particular purposes. These differ of their components and the specified impact on the physique.
- Natural Tinctures: These tinctures are made out of herbs and vegetation. They’re generally used for selling wellness and supporting numerous bodily features.
- Floral Tinctures: These tinctures are created from flowers, usually chosen for his or her particular fragrant and potential medicinal properties.
- Fruit Tinctures: These are made out of fruits, which might present distinctive taste profiles and doubtlessly comprise useful compounds.
- Root Tinctures: These concentrate on the roots of vegetation, usually valued for his or her deep-seated medicinal properties.
Tincture Composition and Makes use of
This desk particulars numerous tincture varieties, their widespread components, and their potential makes use of.
| Tincture Sort | Widespread Components | Potential Makes use of |
|---|---|---|
| Natural Tincture | Chamomile, ginger, turmeric | Rest, digestion assist, irritation discount |
| Floral Tincture | Lavender, rose, chamomile | Stress reduction, skincare, aromatherapy |
| Fruit Tincture | Elderberry, hibiscus, pomegranate | Immune assist, antioxidant increase, digestive well being |
| Root Tincture | Ginger, turmeric, licorice | Anti-inflammatory properties, digestive assist, potential immunity increase |
Preparation Strategies
Unveiling the secrets and techniques behind crafting potent tinctures entails understanding the various preparation strategies. Every method gives distinctive benefits and concerns, impacting the ultimate product’s efficiency and high quality. This part delves into the usual procedures, exploring numerous strategies, and evaluating their strengths and weaknesses. Finally, the perfect methodology is determined by the particular herb and desired final result.Commonplace procedures for creating tinctures usually contain maceration, a strategy of soaking plant materials in a solvent.
Totally different solvents and strategies present numerous outcomes, providing a spread of tinctures with distinctive traits. Understanding these variations is essential for crafting the simplest and satisfying treatments.
Commonplace Tincture Preparation
The elemental precept behind tincture creation revolves round extracting the useful compounds from plant matter utilizing an applicable solvent. A standard and efficient methodology is chilly maceration, permitting for a delicate extraction course of that preserves the fragile constituents inside the plant materials.
Totally different Strategies of Tincture Preparation
Numerous strategies exist for making ready tinctures, every with its personal nuances. Chilly maceration, as talked about earlier, entails soaking plant materials in a solvent like alcohol, permitting the compounds to dissolve slowly. A variation on that is the usage of warmth, which could be utilized to expedite the extraction course of however can even result in degradation of sure compounds.
One other widespread method is the usage of a soxhlet extractor, a specialised equipment that enables for steady extraction beneath managed circumstances. This system is especially helpful for high-quality extracts.
Comparability of Preparation Strategies
Totally different tincture preparation strategies provide distinctive benefits and drawbacks. Chilly maceration, for instance, is gentler and preserves extra delicate compounds, however it may be an extended course of. Warmth-assisted extraction, whereas sooner, may compromise a number of the useful parts. Soxhlet extraction is a robust software for maximizing extraction however requires specialised tools.
Steps Concerned in Getting ready Totally different Forms of Tinctures
| Tincture Sort | Step 1 | Step 2 | Step 3 ||—|—|—|—|| Chilly Maceration | Place dried plant materials in an acceptable container. | Pour chosen solvent (e.g., high-proof alcohol) over the plant materials, guaranteeing full protection. | Seal the container and permit it to macerate at room temperature (or refrigerated) for the suitable period (sometimes a number of weeks). || Warmth-Assisted Maceration | Place dried plant materials in an acceptable container.
| Add chosen solvent (e.g., high-proof alcohol) to the container. | Warmth the combination to a delicate simmer for a selected time interval, then enable it to chill and steep. || Soxhlet Extraction | Place dried plant materials contained in the thimble of the Soxhlet equipment. | Pour chosen solvent into the flask of the Soxhlet equipment. | Provoke the Soxhlet extraction course of, permitting the solvent to constantly flow into and extract compounds from the plant materials.
|
Tools Wanted for Tincture Preparation
A well-equipped tincture-making equipment is important for high quality outcomes. The important tools consists of:
- Appropriate containers (e.g., glass jars with hermetic lids): Glass is essential to forestall chemical reactions with the tincture.
- Solvent (e.g., high-proof alcohol): The chosen solvent have to be of applicable purity and energy.
- Plant materials (contemporary or dried): Guarantee the standard and freshness of the plant materials to maximise efficacy.
- Scale for correct measurement: Exact measurements are important for correct extraction.
- Measuring cups and spoons: Important for exact measurement of components.
- Funnel for transferring liquids: Guarantee correct pouring strategies.
- Soxhlet equipment (non-compulsory): For extra complicated or high-quality extractions.
Makes use of and Purposes: Record Of Tinctures And Makes use of Pdf
Tinctures, these potent little liquid extracts, provide a concentrated approach to harness the therapeutic powers of nature. They have been used for hundreds of years in conventional drugs programs, and fashionable analysis continues to uncover their potential. From soothing aches to supporting total well-being, tinctures is usually a priceless addition to your well being toolkit. Understanding their purposes and potential dangers is essential for accountable use.Plant-based tinctures, in essence, are potent extracts that pack a punch of useful compounds.
They don’t seem to be only a fairly face; they maintain a treasure trove of medicinal properties. Cautious consideration of the particular plant, its elements, and the preparation methodology are key to realizing the complete potential of tinctures.
Medicinal Makes use of of Tinctures
Tinctures serve a various vary of medicinal functions. Their concentrated type permits for focused therapies, usually stronger than merely consuming the entire plant. This concentrated motion, nonetheless, calls for a cautious method to dosage and use. It is vital to know the potential advantages and dangers related to their use.
Examples of Tinctures and Their Purposes
Numerous tinctures discover utility in addressing a spectrum of well being issues. Think about the next examples:
- St. John’s Wort tincture is usually used to assist temper regulation and alleviate gentle to average despair. It is essential to notice that St. John’s Wort can work together with sure drugs, so session with a healthcare skilled is very really useful earlier than utilizing it.
- Echinacea tincture is regularly employed to assist the immune system, significantly throughout chilly and flu season. Its purported antiviral and antibacterial properties have been studied, however extra analysis is required to definitively affirm these results.
- Ginger tincture is usually used to alleviate nausea and indigestion. Its warming properties can even present consolation during times of discomfort.
- Lavender tincture is usually employed for its calming and enjoyable results. It is a common alternative for selling sleep and decreasing stress.
Potential Advantages and Dangers
Whereas tinctures provide potential advantages, understanding the potential dangers is equally necessary. They are often potent, and improper use can result in opposed results. At all times seek the advice of with a healthcare skilled earlier than incorporating tinctures into your well being routine. Their use needs to be a part of a holistic method to wellness, not a alternative for skilled medical recommendation.
Components of Vegetation Utilized in Tinctures and Their Properties
Totally different elements of vegetation possess various medicinal properties. The foundation, leaf, flower, or bark, every contributes distinctive compounds to the ultimate tincture.
- Roots usually comprise compounds that assist grounding, stability, and deep-seated points. They usually contribute to a extra foundational method to well being.
- Leaves regularly present assist for energizing and invigorating results. They could be a key element in selling vitality and energy.
- Flowers are sometimes related to uplifting and delicate assist. They’ll promote a way of well-being and concord.
- Bark is usually related to energy and resilience, serving to to construct a basis for enduring well being.
Comparability of Tincture Makes use of
A desk summarizing the potential makes use of of assorted tinctures, emphasizing their numerous purposes, is offered beneath. Bear in mind, this desk is for informational functions solely and shouldn’t be thought of medical recommendation.
| Tincture | Potential Makes use of |
|---|---|
| St. John’s Wort | Temper regulation, gentle to average despair |
| Echinacea | Immune assist, colds, flu |
| Ginger | Nausea, indigestion |
| Lavender | Calming, rest, sleep |
Security Precautions and Issues
Tinctures, whereas providing potential advantages, require cautious dealing with and consideration. Understanding the potential hazards and adhering to correct security protocols is paramount to making sure a constructive and protected expertise. This part Artikels essential precautions to forestall unintended penalties and maximize the advantages of utilizing tinctures.Correct storage, dealing with, and understanding of potential opposed reactions are key parts in guaranteeing protected tincture use.
Consulting with a healthcare skilled earlier than incorporating tinctures into any well being routine is strongly suggested.
Potential Security Hazards, Record of tinctures and makes use of pdf
Tinctures, usually concentrated plant extracts, can pose security dangers if not dealt with with care. These concentrated kinds might comprise potent compounds that may have opposed results if used improperly. Some potential hazards embody allergic reactions, interactions with drugs, and potential toxicity at excessive doses. It is important to concentrate on these potentialities to take applicable precautions.
Correct Storage and Dealing with Procedures
Secure storage and dealing with procedures are essential for sustaining the standard and stopping contamination of tinctures. Maintain tinctures in hermetic containers, away from direct daylight and excessive temperatures. Retailer them in a cool, darkish place. At all times use clear utensils and tools when dealing with tinctures to keep away from contamination. Label tinctures clearly with the contents, preparation date, and any particular directions.
Youngsters and pets needs to be evaded saved tinctures.
Significance of Consulting a Healthcare Skilled
Earlier than incorporating tinctures into your routine, consulting a healthcare skilled is essential. A healthcare skilled can assess your particular person well being wants and decide if tinctures are appropriate for you. They’ll additionally advise on applicable dosages and potential interactions with different drugs or well being circumstances. This session ensures knowledgeable choices and minimizes potential dangers.
Potential Opposed Reactions
Whereas usually protected, tinctures can set off opposed reactions in sure people. Widespread opposed reactions might embody pores and skin irritation, digestive upset, or allergic responses. Hardly ever, extra extreme reactions can happen. When you expertise any uncommon signs after utilizing a tincture, discontinue use instantly and search medical consideration.
Abstract of Security Precautions for Totally different Forms of Tinctures
| Tincture Sort | Storage | Dealing with | Potential Opposed Reactions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Natural Tinctures | Cool, darkish place, hermetic container | Clear utensils, keep away from direct contact with pores and skin | Allergic reactions, pores and skin irritation, digestive upset |
| Botanical Tinctures | Cool, darkish place, hermetic container | Dilute as directed, keep away from contact with eyes | Allergic reactions, pores and skin irritation, potential toxicity at excessive doses |
| Homeopathic Tinctures | Cool, darkish place, hermetic container | Comply with particular dilution directions | Typically thought of protected, however potential for particular person sensitivities |
At all times prioritize security and seek the advice of with a healthcare skilled earlier than utilizing any tincture.
Potential Interactions
Tinctures, whereas usually touted for his or her pure origins, can nonetheless work together with different substances, together with drugs and dietary supplements. Understanding these interactions is essential for protected and efficient use. This part delves into the complexities of those potential interactions, highlighting the significance of open communication with healthcare professionals.Potential interactions between tinctures and different drugs can vary from gentle to extreme.
An intensive understanding of those interactions is essential to avoiding opposed results and guaranteeing optimum well being outcomes. A cautious evaluation of all drugs, dietary supplements, and natural treatments is significant earlier than incorporating tinctures into your routine.
Potential Interactions with Medicines
Understanding potential interactions between tinctures and different drugs is paramount. Interactions can alter the efficacy of each the tincture and the medicine, and even produce unintended unwanted effects. It is vital to debate all drugs and dietary supplements with a healthcare skilled earlier than utilizing tinctures.
This is not about fear-mongering, however slightly about knowledgeable decision-making. It is about empowering you with data to navigate the potential complexities of natural treatments alongside standard drugs.
Necessary Issues When Discussing Tinctures with Healthcare Professionals
Thorough disclosure is important when discussing tinctures with a healthcare supplier. This consists of not solely the particular tincture being thought of but additionally all different drugs, dietary supplements, and natural treatments at the moment being taken. Offering a complete record of all substances ensures a well-rounded evaluation and helps forestall surprising interactions.
- Record all drugs, together with over-the-counter medication and prescriptions.
- Word any dietary supplements, nutritional vitamins, or natural treatments getting used.
- Be exact in regards to the dosage and frequency of all substances.
- Embody the model names of all drugs and dietary supplements.
Widespread Medicines with Potential Interactions
Many widespread drugs can work together with tinctures. This is not an exhaustive record, but it surely highlights some regularly encountered substances.
- Blood thinners (e.g., warfarin): Some tinctures can affect blood clotting, doubtlessly interacting with blood thinners. A cautious stability of those is critical.
- Antidepressants (e.g., SSRIs): Sure tinctures may affect serotonin ranges, doubtlessly interacting with antidepressants. Seek the advice of your physician earlier than combining them.
- Anti-inflammatory medication (e.g., ibuprofen, naproxen): Some tinctures might affect irritation pathways, doubtlessly interacting with anti-inflammatory medication.
- Digestive drugs: Particular tinctures can have an effect on digestive processes, doubtlessly impacting the efficacy or unwanted effects of medicines for digestion.
Potential Interplay Desk
This desk illustrates potential interactions between tinctures and drugs. It is essential to keep in mind that this isn’t an exhaustive record and particular person responses can range. At all times seek the advice of a healthcare skilled earlier than utilizing tinctures alongside different drugs.
| Tincture | Potential Medicine Interplay | Instance of Potential Impact |
|---|---|---|
| St. John’s Wort | Elevated danger of serotonin syndrome with antidepressants | Elevated coronary heart fee, confusion, muscle spasms |
| Ginkgo Biloba | Elevated danger of bleeding with blood thinners | Bruising, nosebleeds, heavy menstrual bleeding |
| Garlic | Could enhance the danger of bleeding with blood thinners | Probably exacerbated bleeding issues |
| Ginger | Could work together with sure drugs affecting blood sugar ranges | Unpredictable results on blood sugar regulation |
Dosage and Administration
Taking tinctures safely and successfully entails understanding applicable dosages and administration strategies. This important step ensures you get the specified advantages with out risking opposed results. Exact measurement and aware consumption are key to harnessing the facility of tinctures responsibly.Correct dosage pointers are important for tinctures, as their efficiency varies considerably relying on the plant supply and extraction methodology.
Following the really useful dosages helps keep a therapeutic impact and prevents potential hurt. At all times prioritize the protection of your well being by consulting a professional healthcare skilled earlier than utilizing any tincture, particularly when you have underlying well being circumstances or are taking different drugs.
Dosage Pointers
Understanding the suitable quantity of tincture to take is essential for its efficacy and security. A exact dosage is significant for attaining the specified therapeutic impact whereas avoiding potential adverse penalties. The really useful dosage will range primarily based on the particular tincture and its meant use.
Significance of Adhering to Really helpful Dosages
Strict adherence to really useful dosages is essential for optimum outcomes and to reduce potential dangers. Overdosing can result in opposed reactions, whereas underdosing may not present the specified therapeutic advantages. The correct amount is essential for a protected and efficient expertise.
Significance of Consulting a Healthcare Skilled
Earlier than beginning any tincture routine, consulting a healthcare skilled is very really useful. They’ll assess your particular person well being wants and supply personalised recommendation on applicable dosages and potential interactions with different drugs or well being circumstances. This proactive step ensures security and maximizes the advantages of tinctures.
Dosage Pointers Desk
| Tincture Sort | Steered Beginning Dosage | Frequency | Notes ||—|—|—|—|| St. John’s Wort | 1-2 mL thrice day by day | Morning, midday, and night | Dilute in water or juice if wanted || Echinacea | 1-2 mL twice day by day | Morning and night | Could be taken with meals for higher absorption || Peppermint | 1-2 mL, as wanted | As much as 3 instances day by day | Use with warning if pregnant or breastfeeding || Valerian Root | 1-2 mL as soon as day by day | Earlier than bedtime | Could trigger drowsiness |*Word: This desk is for illustrative functions solely.
At all times seek the advice of a healthcare skilled for personalised suggestions.*
Measuring and Administering Tinctures Precisely
Correct measurement and administration are important for correct tincture use. Use calibrated measuring instruments, corresponding to a medication dropper or a graduated spoon, to keep away from unintentional overdosing. Exact measurements guarantee constant outcomes and reduce dangers.For liquid tinctures, a calibrated dropper is good for exact measurements. For stable tinctures, a calibrated measuring spoon is really useful. At all times comply with the directions supplied with the particular tincture.
Recipes and Formulation
Unlocking the potent world of tinctures begins with understanding their recipes. These aren’t simply haphazard mixes; they’re rigorously crafted mixtures of components, every taking part in a vital position within the closing product. Correct measurements and meticulous preparation are paramount for attaining the specified efficiency and high quality. Let’s delve into the specifics.This part gives a glimpse into the world of tincture recipes, guiding you thru the method of making potent and efficient tinctures.
Understanding the exact ratios and strategies is essential to maximizing the advantages of your creations.
Tincture Recipe Examples
This desk showcases a number of tincture recipes, highlighting the components and preparation strategies. Correct measurements are essential for attaining the specified outcomes and efficiency. Every recipe has been rigorously thought of, balancing efficacy and security.
| Tincture | Components | Preparation Technique | Ratio (Approximate) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Stress Aid Tincture | Lavender flowers, Chamomile flowers, Lemon balm leaves, Ashwagandha root | Mix all components in a glass jar. Pour high-proof alcohol (70-80%) over the herbs, guaranteeing all plant matter is submerged. Seal the jar tightly and permit it to steep in a cool, darkish place for at the least 4 weeks, shaking day by day. Pressure the tincture by way of a fine-mesh strainer right into a sterilized bottle. | 1:5 (herb to alcohol) |
| Immune Assist Tincture | Elderberry fruit, Echinacea root, Ginger root, Reishi mushroom | Mix all components in a glass jar. Pour high-proof alcohol (70-80%) over the herbs, guaranteeing all plant matter is submerged. Seal the jar tightly and permit it to steep in a cool, darkish place for at the least 6 weeks, shaking day by day. Pressure the tincture by way of a fine-mesh strainer right into a sterilized bottle. | 1:5 (herb to alcohol) |
| Sleep Assist Tincture | Valerian root, Passionflower, Lemon balm, Chamomile | Mix all components in a glass jar. Pour high-proof alcohol (70-80%) over the herbs, guaranteeing all plant matter is submerged. Seal the jar tightly and permit it to steep in a cool, darkish place for at the least 4 weeks, shaking day by day. Pressure the tincture by way of a fine-mesh strainer right into a sterilized bottle. | 1:5 (herb to alcohol) |
Significance of Correct Measurements
Exact measurements are important in tincture recipes. A slight variation in ingredient ratios can considerably influence the tincture’s efficiency and effectiveness. For instance, utilizing a barely decrease ratio of herbs to alcohol may lead to a weaker tincture, whereas the next ratio might doubtlessly result in a very potent and even poisonous product. Constant measurements are essential for reproducibility and security.
This ensures that every batch of tincture has the specified therapeutic impact.
Understanding Ratios
The ratio of herbs to alcohol is essential in tincture-making. A normal guideline is a 1:5 ratio (herb to alcohol). This ratio ensures correct extraction of useful compounds from the herbs whereas sustaining the tincture’s stability. Changes to this ratio is likely to be obligatory relying on the particular herb and desired final result. For instance, herbs with a excessive focus of potent compounds may require a barely decrease ratio to keep away from extreme energy.
Ideas for Profitable Tincture Making
When crafting tinctures, take into account the following pointers for optimum outcomes:
- At all times use high-quality, contemporary herbs.
- Guarantee all herbs are totally dried and floor to the suitable dimension for even extraction.
- Keep a constant temperature and surroundings throughout the steeping course of.
- Use high-quality, pure alcohol.
- At all times use clear, sterile containers and tools.
Further Data
Tinctures, these concentrated plant extracts, maintain an interesting historical past interwoven with scientific developments and cultural significance. Their journey from historical natural treatments to modern-day well being practices gives priceless insights into how we have understood and utilized nature’s bounty. Let’s delve into the wealthy tapestry of tinctures, exploring their previous, current, and potential.A deep understanding of tinctures requires not simply understanding
- how* they’re made, but additionally
- why*. The science behind tinctures lies within the extraction of bioactive compounds from vegetation, preserving them to be used in numerous purposes. This course of, whereas seemingly easy, displays centuries of experimentation and refinement. Additional, the cultural context surrounding tinctures reveals their profound position in numerous societies, influencing drugs, spirituality, and day by day life.
Historical past of Tinctures
Tinctures have a protracted and interesting historical past, with proof of their use courting again hundreds of years. Historic civilizations, from the Egyptians to the Greeks and Romans, acknowledged the therapeutic properties of vegetation and developed strategies for extracting and preserving their medicinal parts. Early types of tinctures, usually utilizing alcohol as a solvent, emerged as a extra concentrated and transportable approach to harness the facility of herbs.
This method proved invaluable in areas the place contemporary vegetation had been scarce or seasonal.
Science Behind Tinctures
The science behind tinctures rests on the ideas of extraction and preservation. Solvents, like alcohol, dissolve particular compounds from plant materials, that are then concentrated and stabilized. The selection of solvent considerably influences the sorts of compounds extracted and the general high quality of the tincture. Trendy scientific understanding of phytochemicals and their results additional enhances our appreciation for the potential of tinctures.
Cultural Significance of Tinctures
Tinctures maintain various cultural significance throughout completely different communities. In some cultures, they’re integral to conventional drugs programs, handed down by way of generations. For instance, the usage of particular tinctures for religious functions or ceremonial practices is deeply embedded in sure traditions. Their historic and modern purposes underscore their significance as a software for therapeutic, ritual, and cultural expression.
Notable Figures within the Research of Tinctures
Whereas pinpointing particular people solely devoted to the research of tinctures is difficult, historic figures related to herbalism and pure drugs usually contributed to the understanding and growth of those preparations. Their contributions spanned numerous fields, from drugs to pharmacy, and performed a vital position within the evolution of tinctures.
Historic Context of Tinctures
| Interval | Context | Key Developments ||——————-|———————————————————————————————————————————————————————–|——————————————————————————————————————————————-|| Historic Egypt | Natural treatments and plant-based therapies had been integral to healthcare practices.
| Early types of tinctures seemingly emerged by way of experimentation with plant extracts and pure solvents.
|| Historic Greece | Hippocrates, thought of the “father of drugs,” emphasised remark and the significance of pure treatments. | Additional growth of natural preparations, seemingly incorporating extra subtle extraction strategies.
|| Medieval Europe | Herbalism flourished, with important contributions from monastic orders and apothecaries. | Refinement of tincture preparation strategies and a widening vary of medicinal tinctures used throughout Europe.
|| Renaissance | Emphasis on scientific inquiry and experimentation. | Additional developments in chemical processes, resulting in enhancements in tincture high quality and efficacy.
|| nineteenth & twentieth Centuries | Scientific developments in chemistry and botany additional elucidate the chemical composition of vegetation and their medicinal properties.
| Elevated understanding of particular phytochemicals and their therapeutic results. Emergence of contemporary pharmacological approaches alongside conventional natural drugs. |
